关键词不能为空

当前您在: 首页 > 试管婴儿 >

试管婴儿吃什么着床专业英语课文翻译

作者:陕西保健网
来源:http://www.xapfxb.com/yuer
更新日期:2021-01-15 13:31

45岁卵巢早衰还能做试管婴儿-试管婴儿两次没成怎么办

2021年1月15日发(作者:中国试管婴儿最好医院)
School of chemical engineering and pharmaceutical
qualitative analysis定性分析 quantitative analysis定量分析
test tubes 试管 test tube holder试管夹 random error偶然误差 reagent试剂
test tube brush 试管刷 test tube rack试管架 relative error相对误差 robustness耐用性 sample样品
beaker烧杯 stirring搅拌棒 thermometer温度计 relative standard deviation相对标准偏差 selectivity选择性
boiling flask长颈烧瓶 Florence flask平底烧瓶 sensitivity灵敏度 specificity专属性 titration滴定
flask,round bottom,two-neck boiling flask,three-neck
significant figure有效数字 solubility product溶度积
conical flask锥形瓶 wide-mouth bottle广口瓶 standard addition标准加入法 standard deviation标准偏差
graduated cylinder量筒 gas measuring tube气体检测管 standardization标定法 stoichiometric point化学计量点
volumetric flask容量瓶 transfer pipette移液管 systematic error系统误差
Geiser burette(stopcock)酸式滴定管 funnel漏斗 有机化学
Mohr burette(with pinchcock)碱式滴定管 acid anhydride 酸酐 acyl halide 酰卤 alcohol 醇
watch glass表面皿 evaporating dish蒸发皿 aldehyde 醛aliphatic 脂肪族的alkene 烯烃alkyne炔
ground joint磨口连接 Petri dish有盖培养皿 allyl烯丙基amide氨基化合物 amino acid 氨基酸
desiccators干燥皿 aromatic compound 芳香烃化合物 amine胺 butyl 丁基
long-stem funnel长颈漏斗 filter funnel过滤漏斗 aromatic ring芳环,苯环 branched- chain支链 chain链
B
ü
chner funnel瓷漏斗 separatory funnel分液漏斗
carbonyl羰基 carboxyl羧基 chelate螯合
Hirsh funnel赫尔什漏斗 filter flask 吸滤瓶 chiral center手性中心conformers构象 copolymer共聚
Thiele melting point tube蒂勒熔点管 物derivative 衍生物 dextrorotatary右旋性的
plastic squeeze bottle塑料洗瓶 medicine dropper药用滴管 diazotization重氮化作用 dichloromethane二氯甲烷
rubber pipette bulb 吸球 microspatula微型压舌板 ester酯 ethyl乙基 fatty acid脂肪酸
pipet吸量管 mortar and pestle研体及研钵 functional group 官能团general formula 通式
filter paper滤纸 Bunsen burner煤气灯 glycerol 甘油,丙三醇 heptyl 庚基heterocyclie 杂环的
burette stand滴定管架 support ring支撑环 hexyl 己基 homolog 同系物hydrocarbon 烃,碳氢化合物
ring stand环架 distilling head蒸馏头 hydrophilic 亲水的hydrophobic 疏水的hydroxide 烃基
side-arm distillation flask侧臂蒸馏烧瓶 ketone 酮 levorotatory左旋性的 methyl 甲基
air condenser空气冷凝器 centrifuge tube离心管 molecular formula分子式 monomer单体
fractionating column精(分)馏管 octyl辛基open chain开链optical activity旋光性(度)
Graham condenser蛇形冷凝器 organic 有机的 organic chemistry 有机化学
crucible坩埚 crucible tongs坩埚钳 beaker tong烧杯钳 organic compounds有机化合物 pentyl戊基
economy extension clamp经济扩展夹 extension clamp牵引夹 phenol苯酚phenyl苯基polymer 聚合物,聚合体
utility clamp铁试管夹 hose clamp软管夹 burette clamp propyl丙基ring-shaped环状结构 zwitterion兼性离子
pinchcock;pinch clamp弹簧夹 screw clamp 螺丝钳 saturated compound饱和化合物side chain侧链
ring clamp 环形夹 goggles护目镜stopcock活塞 straight chain 直链 tautomer互变(异构)体
wire gauze铁丝网 analytical balance分析天平 structural formula结构式 triglyceride甘油三酸脂
分析化学 unsaturated compound不饱和化合物
absolute error绝对误差 accuracy准确度 assay化验 物理化学
analyte(被)分析物 calibration校准 constituent成分 activation energy活化能 adiabat绝热线 amplitude振幅
coefficient of variation变异系数 confidence level置信水平 collision theory碰撞理论 empirical temperature假定温度
detection limit检出限 determination测定 estimation 估算
enthalpy
焓 enthalpy of
combustion
燃烧焓
equivalent point等当点 gross error总误差 impurity杂质 enthalpy of fusion熔化热 enthalpy of hydration水合热
indicator指示剂 interference干扰 internal standard内标 enthalpy of reaction反应热
level of significance显着性水平 limit of quantitation定量限 enthalpy of sublimation升华热
masking掩蔽 matrix基体 precision精确度
enthalpy of vaporization汽化热
entropy

primary standard原始标准物 purity纯度 first law热力学第一定律 first order reaction一级反应
free energy自由能 Hess’s law盖斯定律
Gibbs free energy offormation吉布斯生成能
heat capacity热容 internal energy内能 isobar等压线
isochore等容线isotherm等温线 kinetic energy动能
latent heat潜能Planck’s constant普朗克常数
potential energy势能
quantum
量子
quantum mechanics量子力学rate law速率定律
specific heat比热
spontaneous
自发的
standard enthalpy change
标准焓变
standard entropy of reaction标准反应熵
standard molar entropy标准摩尔熵standard pressure标压
propyl gallate没食子酸丙酯 sodium chloride氯化钠
sodium nitraten硝酸钠 sodium nitrite亚硝酸钠
trans fats反式脂肪
genetic food
转基因食品 food poisoning 食物中毒
hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)
危害分析关键控制点技术
maternal and child health care妇幼保健护理
national patriotic health campaign committee(NPHCC)
全国爱国卫生运动委员会 rural health农村卫生管理
the state food and drug administration (SFDA)
国家食品药品监督管理局
光谱:Astronomical Spectroscopy天文光谱学
Laser Spectroscopy激光光谱学 Mass Spectrometry质谱
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy原子吸收光谱
Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy衰减全反射光谱
Electron Paramagnetic Spectroscopy电子顺磁谱
Electron Spectroscopy电子光谱
Infrared
Spectroscopy红外光谱
Fourier Transform Spectrosopy傅里叶变换光谱
Gamma-ray Spectroscopy伽玛射线光谱
Multiplex or Frequency-Modulated Spectroscopy
复用或频率调制光谱 X-ray SpectroscopyX射线光谱
色谱:Gas Chromatography气相色谱
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
高效液相色谱Thin-Layer Chromatography薄层色谱
magnesium silicate gel硅酸镁凝胶retention time保留时间
mobile phase流动相 stationary phase固定相
反应类型:
agitated tank搅拌槽 catalytic reactor催化反应器
batch stirred tank reactor间歇搅拌反应釜
continuous stirred tank 连续搅拌釜
exothermic reactions放热反应 pilot plant试验工厂
fluidized bed Reactor流动床反应釜
multiphase chemical reactions 多相化学反应
packed bed reactor填充床反应器
redox reaction氧化还原反应 reductant-oxidant氧化还原剂
acid base reaction酸碱反应 additionreaction加成反应
chemical equation化学方程式 valence electron价电子
combination reaction化合反应 hybrid orbital 杂化轨道
decomposition reaction分解反应
substitution reaction取代(置换)反应



state function
状态函数
thermal energy
热能
thermochemical equation
热化学方程式
thermodynamic equilibrium
热力学平衡
uncertainty principle
测不准定理
zero order reaction零级反应 zero point energy零点能
课文词汇
实验安全及记录:
eye wash眼药水 first-aid kit急救箱 gas line输气管
safety shower紧急冲淋房 water faucet水龙头
flow chart流程图 loose leaf活页
单元操作分类:
heat transfer传热 Liquid-liquid extraction液液萃取
liquid-solid leaching过滤 vapor pressure蒸气压
membrane separation薄膜分离
空气污染:
carbon dioxide 二氧化碳carbon monoxide一氧化碳
particulate matter颗粒物质photochemical smog光化烟雾
primary pollutants一次污染物secondary pollutants二次
污染物 stratospheric ozone depletion平流层臭氧消耗
sulfur dioxide二氧化硫 volcanic eruption火山爆发
食品化学:
amino acid氨基酸,胺 amino group氨基
empirical formula实验式,经验式 fatty acid脂肪酸
peptide bonds肽键 polyphenol oxidase 多酚氧化酶
salivary amylase唾液淀粉酶 steroid hormone甾类激素
table sugar蔗糖 triacylglycerol三酰甘油,甘油三酯
食品添加剂:
acesulfame-K乙酰磺胺酸钾,一种甜味剂
adrenal gland肾上腺 ionizing radiation致电离辐射
food additives食品添加剂
monosodium glutamate味精,谷氨酸一钠(味精的化学成分)
natural flavors天然食用香料,天然食用调料
nutrasweet天冬甜素 potassium bromide 溴化钾
Lesson5 Classification of Unit Operations单元操作
Fluid flow流体流动
它涉及的原理是确定任一流体从一个点到另一个点
的流动和输送。
Heat transfer传热
这个单元操作涉及的原理是控制不同位置处热量和
能量的积累和转移。
Evaporation蒸发
它涉及易挥发溶剂的蒸发,这些溶剂来自不易挥发的
溶质,诸如盐或溶液中任意其他物质。
Drying干燥
这个操作是将易挥发的液体(通常为水)从固体物质
中移除。
Distillation蒸馏
蒸馏是基于不同液体的蒸汽压不同,通过加热煮沸将
一个液体混合物分离。
Absorption吸收
吸收是将一种化合物从气体流中转移到液体中。
Membrane separation薄膜分离
这个过程包含从液体或气体的溶质通过一个暂时性
的薄膜扩散到另一液体中。
Liquid-liquid extraction液液萃取
在这个操作中,溶液中的溶质被转移到与之接触的,与溶
液相对不溶的里一种液体溶剂中。
Liquid-solid leaching过滤
过滤用于处理液体中的细微待分离固体,并可得到包
含在固体中的溶质移出。
Crystallization结晶
该操作可实现溶质的回收,例如溶液中的盐可通过液
体中的溶质沉淀获得。
Mechanical physical separation机械物理分离
机械物理分 离是应用机械手段来实现固体、液体或气体的
分离。例如过滤、沉淀和缩小体积,机械分离常被归入分< br>离的单元操作。
Lesson6 Fractional Distillation分馏
分馏是根据混合物里面化合物的沸点,将其加热到足
够高的温度从而达到分离。
(1)Apparatus实验装置:
圆底烧瓶
锥形瓶
李比希冷凝器
抗爆沸原板颗粒
温度计
橡胶塞(除非快速适应使用)
(2)Method试验方法:
例如,乙醇和水的混合物蒸馏。酒精在℃时沸腾,而水的沸点是100℃。因此,通过轻轻加热混合物,酒精会首先
沸腾。一些混合物形成共沸物,在较低的 温度下的那个混
合物会比另一成分的化合物先沸腾。在乙醇的例子中,由
95%乙醇和5%的水 组成的混合物煮沸到℃。所以不能完全
将乙醇蒸馏提纯。
该实验装置如图所示。将混合物装入 圆底烧瓶并放入一些
防爆沸小粒,并且将分馏管安装在顶部。当混合物沸腾时,
蒸汽上升到分馏 管。蒸汽在冷凝管中凝结,向下流动回流冷
却蒸馏物聚成液体。只有大部分挥发性的蒸汽处于气体状态< br>一直到达顶部。在分馏管顶部的蒸汽几乎是纯乙醇。然后传
递到冷凝管,使它冷却下来,直到它液 化。这个过程持续到
将所有的乙醇从混合物中蒸发出来。这一点能够通过温度计
中温度的急剧上 升而识别出从乙醇的沸点到水的沸点。
(3)Industrial uses of F…工业分馏 ---炼油厂
最重要的工业应用分馏是原油的分馏。除了规模以外,这
个过程的原则类似于以 上的实验室方法,连续供料和操作。
而事实上,原油由许多不同的化合物混合在一起。分馏塔
的 柱子上有一出口能够允许不同温度段的不同馏分有规
律的溢流出来,具有高度挥发性的气体将会从最顶端 的阀
门逸出,而挥发性较小的筑路焦油则从底部出来。
Lesson7 Crystallization结晶化
结晶是一种化学家利用它净化固体化合物的技
术。这 是一种每个化学家在实验室必须熟练掌握的基
本程序。结晶是以溶解度原则为基础:化合物(溶质)更倾向于溶于热的液体(溶剂)而非冷的液体。如果允
许饱和热溶液冷却,溶质不再溶于溶剂和形成 纯化合
物晶体。杂质从生长的晶体中被排除和纯固态晶体可
通过过滤从溶解的杂质中被分离。
(1)加热溶剂至沸腾,把固体放入一个锥形瓶重结晶。
(2)向含有固体的锥形瓶中倒入少量的热溶剂。
(3)强烈振荡锥形瓶使固体溶解。
(4)将锥形瓶放在蒸气浴上,以保持溶液高温。
(5)如果仍有不溶解固体,可以加入少量溶剂和强烈振荡。
(6)当所有固体都溶解了,把锥形瓶放在工作台上。
不要动它!
(7)过一会儿后,晶体出现在锥形瓶中。
(8)你现在可以把锥形瓶放入冰浴中来完成结晶过程。
Lesson 11 Heat Transfer传热
1 Basics of Heat Transfer基本传热
In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer
is concerned with only two things: temperature, and
the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount
of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow
represents the movement of thermal energy from
place to place.
在最简单的术语,传热学科关注的只有两件事:温度,
和热流量。温度是热能源 的数量,而热流代表的热能
从一个地方移动到的地方。
On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the
kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's
temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its
constituent molecules (manifested both in linear
motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions
containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this
energy to regions with less kinetic energy.
在微观尺度,热能是分子的动能相关。更大的物质的
温度,其组成分子的热运 动更大的(表现在直线运动
模式)和振动。含有大分子的动能来传递能量到较小
的动能的地区是 自然的。 Several material properties
serve to modulate the heat transferred between two
regions at differing temperatures. Examples include
thermal conductivities, specific heats, material
densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface
emissivities, and more. Taken together, these
properties serve to make the solution of many heat
transfer problems an involved process. 几种材料的性
能起到调节转移之间的 两个区域在不同温度下的热。
例子包括的热传导率,比热,密度,流体速度,流体
粘度,表面的 发射率,和更多。总之,这些特性使许
多传热问题,一个复杂的过程,解决方案。
2. Heat Transfer Mechanisms传热机制
Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad
categories:
传热机制可以分为3大类:
Conduction: Regions with greater molecular kinetic
energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with
less molecular energy through direct molecular
collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a
significant portion of the transported thermal energy is
also carried by conduction-band electrons.
传导:更大的分子动能的地区将通过他们的 热能通过
分子的直接碰撞不分子的能量区域,这个过程被称为
传导。在金属的热能源,运输的一 个重要部分,也是
由导带电子进行。
Convection: When heat conducts into a static fluid it
leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of
gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid
parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby
transporting heat by fluid motion . convection) in
addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion
in initially static fluids is known as free convection.
对流:当热传递到一个静态流体导致局部体积膨胀。
作为一个结果, 诱导的压力梯度,重力,浮力和流体
包裹成为扩大移除,从而输送热流体运动(即对流)
除了传 导。这样的热诱导的流体运动的最初的静态液
体被称为自由对流。
Radiation: For cases where the fluid is already in
motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be
transported away chiefly by fluid convection. These
cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure
gradient to drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a
gravity gradient to induce motion through buoyancy.
辐射:对于流体已经在运动,进 行了流体热将被运走,
主要是由流体对流。这些情况下,被称为强制对流,
需要的压力梯度驱动 的流体的运动,而不是一个重力
梯度诱导运动通过浮力.
伤害或不适的人类或其他生物,或破 坏自然环境。空气污
染造成的死亡和呼吸系统疾病。空气污染往往是确定的主
要固定污染源,但 排放的最大来源是移动的来源,主要是
汽车。二氧化碳之类的气体,是导致全球变暖,最近的气
候科学家的污染物得到了认可,而他们也承认,二氧化碳
是通过光合作用的植物生命所必需的。
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous
system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.
Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long
been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the
Earth's ecosystems.
大气是一个复杂的,动态的天然气 系统,来支持地球上的
生命本质。平流层臭氧耗竭因空气污染一直是威胁人类健
康和地球的生态 系统。
Pollutants污染物
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can
cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can
be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In
addition, they may be natural or man-made.
一种空气污染物被称为空气中的物质,可以对人体和环境造成的危害。污染物可在固体颗粒,形成液滴,
或气体。此外,他们可能是天然的或人造的。
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary.
Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from
a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon
monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide
released from factories.
污染 物可以被归类为主要或次要。通常,一个过程的主要
污染物是从直接排放的物质,如火山喷发的火山灰, 一氧
化碳气体来自汽车废气、二氧化硫释放从工厂。
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form
in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An
important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level
ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up
photochemical smog.
二次污染物不能直接排放。相反,它们形成在空气 中主要
污染物反应或相互作用。一种二次污染的一个重要的例子
是地面臭氧是光化学烟雾,使许 多二次污染
Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary:
that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other
primary pollutants.
请注意,有些污染物可能是原发性和继发性:即,他们都
Lesson 14 Air Pollution大气污染
是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形成。
Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that
主要由人类活动产生的主要污染物包括:
cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms,
or damages the natural environment. Air pollution causes
Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide a chemical
deaths and respiratory disease. Air pollution is often identified
compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes
with major stationary sources, but the greatest source of
and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum
emissions is mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such
often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates
as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence
recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists,
of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2]
while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for
This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental
plant life through photosynthesis.
impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. 硫氧化物
空气污染颗粒物的人引入化学,大气,或 生物材料,造成
(SOx)尤其是二氧化硫和二氧化硫的化学化合物公式。二
氧化硫是由火山和 各种工业过程产生的。从煤和石油中常
含有硫化合物,其燃烧产生的二氧化硫。SO2的进一步氧化,< br>通常在催化剂的存在下,如NO2,形成硫酸,从而酸雨。
这是[ 2 ]在使用这些燃料作为动力来源的环境影响问题的
原因之一。
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted
from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown
haze dome above or plume downwind of dioxide is the
chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the
several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most
prominent air pollutants.
氮氧化物(NOx)特别是二氧化氮是高温燃烧排放。可以被
看作是棕色的圆顶或羽顺风的城市。二氧化 氮NO2与公式
的化合物。这是一个几个氮氧化物。这红棕色的有毒气体,
有一个特点鲜明,咬 的气味。二是其中最为突出的空气污
染物。
Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but
very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion
of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a
major source of carbon monoxide.
一氧化碳是无色,无味,无刺激性的但非常有毒气体。它< br>是由燃料如天然气不完全燃烧的产物,煤和木材。汽车尾
气是一氧化碳的主要来源。
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from
combustion.
二氧化碳(CO2),一种温室气体排放燃烧。
Volatile organic compounds VOCs are an important outdoor
air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the
separate categories of methane ((CH4) and non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas
which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other
hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via
their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of
methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies
depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the
aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are
suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through
prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous
compound which is often associated with industrial uses.
挥发性有机化合物是一种重要的室外空气污染物。在这 场
他们往往分为不同的类别(甲烷(CH4)和非甲烷
(NMVOCs)。甲烷是一种非常有效 的温室气体,有助于增
强全球变暖。其他烃类VOCs是重要的温室气体,通过产
生臭氧和延长 了甲烷在大气中的寿命的作用,虽然效果取
决于当地的空气质量。在NMVOCs芳香族化合物,苯,甲
苯和二甲苯是可疑致癌物质,可以通过延长曝光导致白血
病。丁二烯是另一个危险的化合物,通 常是用工业用途有
关的。
Particulate matter Particulates, alternatively referred to as
particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of
solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to
particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter
can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur
naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human
activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power
plants and various industrial processes also generate
significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe,
anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human
activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total
amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine
particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart
disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
颗粒物质的微粒,或者称为颗粒物(PM)或 细颗粒,是固
体或液体悬浮在空气中的微小颗粒。相反,气溶胶是指
颗粒与气体一起。大气颗粒 物源可以是人造或天然。有
些颗粒物是自然发生的,从火山,沙尘暴,森林和草原
火灾,有生命 的植物,和浪花。人类活动,如燃烧化石
燃料的车辆,电厂和各种工业过程中也产生了大量的气
溶胶。全球平均的,人为气溶胶由人类活动使目前约占
大气中的气溶胶总金额的百分之10。空气中的微 粒的水
平升高与健康的危害,如心脏病,肺功能的改变与肺癌。
oxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
有毒金属,如铅,镉和铜。
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer
emitted from products currently banned from use. 氯氟烃
(CFCs),从目前禁止使用的产品排放破坏臭氧层。
NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic
pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a
precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either
directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of
many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous.
氨(N H3)从农业过程中排放。氨是一种具有氨化合物公
式。它通常是作为一种气体具有刺鼻的气味遇到。氨 对陆
地生物的营养需求明显作为食品和肥料的前兆。氨,直接
或间接的影响,也对许多药物的合 成砌块。尽管广泛使用,
是碱和有害的氨。
Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
气味,如垃圾,污水,工业过程
Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions, war
explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive
decay of radon.
放射性污染物的核爆炸产生的爆炸,战争,和自然过程,
如氡的放射性衰变。
Secondary pollutants include:
二次污染物包括:Particulate matter formed from gaseous
primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical
smog .Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word ―smog‖ is a
portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture
of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually
come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions
that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
颗粒物质从气态污染物和光化学烟雾形成的化合物。烟雾
是一种空气污染;―烟雾 ‖是一个合成烟与雾。结果经典
的烟雾从大量的煤炭燃烧面积混合引起的烟尘和二氧化
硫。现代 的烟雾不经常来自于煤,但从汽车和工业排放物,
作用在大气中经阳光照射产生的二次污染物,也与主要 排
放物结合形成光化学烟雾。
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3)
is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important
constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly
known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical
reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that
occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the
combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of
smog.
地面臭氧(O3)的NOx和VO Cs形成。臭氧(O3)是对流
层的关键组成部分(也是俗称的平流层臭氧层的某些地区
一个重 要的组成部分)。光化学和化学反应驱动多发生在
白天和夜间的大气化学过程。在由人类活动带来的异常 高
浓度(主要是化石燃料的燃烧),它是一种污染物,和烟
雾的一个组成部分。
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
过氧硝酸(PAN)的NOx和VOCs同样构成。
Minor air pollutants include:
轻微的空气污染物包括:
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of
these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in
Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
大量小的有害空气污染物。这些规定在美国清洁空气法案
下,欧洲的空气框架指令。
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to
particulate matter.
各种持久性有机污染物,它可以附着在颗粒物。
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds
that are resistant to environmental degradation through
chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this,
they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be
capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and
animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential
significant impacts on human health and the environment.
持 久性有机污染物(POPs)是耐环境退化是通过化学,生
物有机化合物,和光解过程。正因为如此,他 们已观察到
持续存在于环境中,能远距离运输,生物蓄积在人体和动
物的组织,在食物链的生物 放大作用,并具有潜在的显着
的对人类健康和环境的影响
Lesson 21 Medical Chemistry
Chemistry has long been an integral part of the
pharmaceutical industry and its importance should not
diminish. Many currently marketed drugs such as the
antineoplastic agent, paclitaxel, and the antibiotic,
vancomycin, are natural products. The extracts of
plants and marine organisms and the products of soil
bacteria fermentation will continue to be investigated
as potential sources of powerful new drug substances.
Chemists are certainly involved in this arena of drug
discovery as they conduct the painstaking isolation,
purification, and structural characterization of
pharmacologically active components which most
often are present in minute amounts in the natural
source and which have extremely complex chemical
structures. The enormous advances in molecular
biology have resulted in the successful development of
bio-engineered therapeutic agents, for example,
human insulin, Herceptin (Genentech drug for breast
cancer), and Enbrel (Immunex drug for rheumatoid
arthritis). It is anticipated that many other
biomolecules may be forthcoming for the treatment of
human disease.
化学一直是制药行业的 一个组成部分,其重要性不应
该减少。许多已上市的药物如抗肿瘤药物,紫杉醇,
和抗生素,万 古霉素,是天然产品。植物和海洋生物
和土壤细菌的发酵产品提取将继续研究的强大的新
的药物 的潜在来源。化学家确实参与了这一领域的药
物发现他们进行艰苦的分离,纯化和药理活性成分,
其中最常见的是存在于微量的天然来源,具有极其复
杂的化学结构表征。在分子生物学的巨大进步已导 致
在生物工程药物的研制成功,例如,人胰岛素,赫赛
汀(Genentech的药物对乳腺癌 ),和Enbrel(内克
斯风湿性关节炎药物)。据预计,许多其他生物分子
可能是即将到来 的人类疾病的治疗。
However the great majority of existing drugs are small organic
molecules (MW-200-600) that have been synthesized by
medicinal chemists. There is no reason to doubt that most drugs
of the future will also fall in this category. It is thus important to
define what is meant by ―medicinal chemist‖ and what role is
played by the practitioners of this sub-discipline in the
pharmaceutical industry. A traditional and perhaps somewhat
narrow definition of medicinal chemist is that of a researcher
engaged in the design and synthesis of bioactive molecules. As
part of their academic training, many medicinal chemists carried
out doctoral and postdoctoral work that involved the total
synthesis of natural products andor the development of synthetic
methodology. They are hired by pharmaceutical companies
because of the skills they have gained in planning and conducting
the synthesis of organic compounds. While such skills can remain
important throughout chemists’ careers, they alone are
insufficient for the challenging task of drug discovery in which,
unlike the academic environment, synthetic chemistry is just a
means to an end rather than an end in itself. Thus, the
enterprising young chemical researcher who enters the industry
must be able and willing to undergo an evolution from that of
pure synthetic chemist who knows how to make compounds to
that of medicinal chemist who also has an insight into what to
make and why.
然而,现有的药物,绝大多数是有机小分子< br>(mw-200-600)已被药物化学家合成了。没有理由
怀疑大多数药物的未来也属于这一类 。因此,定义什
么是―药用化学家‖和什么角色是由这一分支学科
的从业者在制药工业中起着重 要的。传统甚至有些狭
隘的药物化学家是一个研究员,从事与生物活性分子
的设计合成。作为他 们的学术训练的一部分,许多药
物化学家进行博士和博士后工作涉及天然产物的全
合成及合成方 法的发展。他们受雇于制药公司因为他
们在策划和进行合成有机化合物获得的技能。虽然这
样的 技能可以在药店的事业仍然是重要的,他们还不
足以在药物发现的具有挑战性的任务,不同的学术环境,合成化学只是达到目的的一种手段,而不是目的
本身。因此,有进取心的年轻化学研究员进入行 业必
须能够和愿意接受一个从纯的合成化学家谁知道如
何使化合物的药物化学家谁也洞察到做和 为什么。
Such insight is gained by acquiring an expanded knowledge base.
It is important for the medicinal chemist to know what structural
components act as pharmacophores in existing drugs.
Pharmacophores, which can be of varying complexity, comprise
the essential structural elements of a drug molecule that enable it
to interact on the molecular level with a biological macromolecule
such as a receptor or enzyme and thus impart a pharmacological
effect. The medicinal chemist must become skilled at analyzing
the structure activity relationships (SAR) that pertain to the series
of compounds on which he is working. That is, how does the
activity in a biological test of analogs within the series change
depending on the introduction of substituents of various size,
polarity, and lipophilicity at various domains of the parent drug
molecule? Elucidation of the SAR within a series of active
compounds is the key to optimizing the potency and other
desirable biological properties in order to identify a new chemical
entity (NCE) as a bona fide drug candidate. Quantitative structure
activity relationships (QSAR) are often employed in this effort;
analyses employing linear free energy relationships, linear
regression, and other techniques can be utilized to correlate
biological activity with the electronic, steric, polarizability, and
other physicallchemical parameters of the substituent groups on
members of a series of structurally related compounds.
这种见解是通过收购扩大知识库 了。要知道结构构件
作为现有药物的药效的药物化学家很重要。药效基团,
可以不同的复杂性, 包含一种药物分子,使其在与生
物大分子如受体或酶分子水平的相互作用,从而产生
药理效应的 结构要素。药用化学家必须成为熟练的分
析结构-活性关系(SAR)属于该系列化合物对他工作
的。那就是,如何在生物试验活动的类似物在一系列
的变化取决于各种大小,取代基的引入极性,和亲 脂
性的母体药物分子在不同领域?在一系列的活性化
合物的SAR鉴定是优化以及其他优良的生 物学特性
的效力来确定一个新的化学实体的关键(NCE)作为
一个善意的候选药物。定量结构 活性关系(QSAR)
经常被用在这方面的努力;分析采用线性自由能关系,
线性回归,和其他 技术可用于生物活性与电子,空间,
极化和关联,对一系列的结构上相关的化合物的取代
基参数 等physicallchemical成员。
The synthesis and isolation of pure enantiomers has become
increasingly important. In the past chiral drugs were most
often marketed as racemic mixtures since it was not deemed
cost- effective to provide them in enantiomercially pure form.
However, in many cases one or the other enantiomers of an
optically active drug may have a significantly greater level of
the desired biological activity andor less side effect liability
than its antipode. Regulatory agencies such as the FDA now
routinely require that each enantiomer of a chiral drug be
isolated and evaluated in tests of efficacy, side effects, and
toxicity. If one of the enantiomers is shown to be clearly
superior then it is likely that it is the form that will be
developed as the drug candidate. Thus enantioselective
chemical reactions which can afford a high enantiomeric
excess(ee) of one or the other of a pair of enantiomers are
valuable components of the medicinal chemist’s synthetic
tools. Enzyme chemistry plays a prominent role in drug R&D
since isolated enzymes or microorganisms can often achieve
an enantiospecific chemical transformation much more
efficiently and economically than conventional synthetic
methods. Many ―big pharma‖ companies now have
dedicated groups that exclusively study enzymatic reactions.
与纯对映异构体的分离已成为越来越重要的 合成。在过去
的手性药物是最经常被作为外消旋混合物,因为它被认为
是不符合成本效益ena ntiomercially纯粹的形式提供给他
们。然而,在许多情况下,一个或一个光学活性的药物 可
能比其他的对映体的对映体的一个显着更大的所需的生
物活性和或副作用少负债水平。管理机 构如美国食品和
药物管理局现在经常要求每个对映异构体的手性药物分
离和测试评价疗效,副作 用,毒性。如果其中的一个对映
体被证明是明显优于那么很可能它是形式,将发展作为候
选药物 。因此,对映选择性化学反应可负担得起的高对映
体过量(ee)的一个或一对对映体的其他的药物化学 家的
合成工具价值的成分。酶化学在药物研发从分离的酶或微
生物往往可以实现手性化学转化更 有效和经济上比传统
的合成方法发挥了突出的作用。许多―大制药公司现在有
专门小组,专门研 究酶促反应。
Lesson 23 Food Nutrition
Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of
carbohydrates, fats, water andor proteins, that can be eaten
or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure.
食物是什么物质,通常由主要 是碳水化合物,脂肪,水分
和或蛋白质,能吃或一个动物或人体对营养和乐趣醉。
here are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates , fats ,
fiber , minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. These nutrient
classes can be generally grouped into the categories of
macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and
micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The
macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and
water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.
有七大类:营养,碳水化合物,脂肪,纤维,矿物质 ,蛋
白质,维生素,和水。这些营养类一般可分为宏量营养素
的种类(金额比较大的需要),以 及微量元素(需要在较
小的数量)。宏量营养素是碳水化合物,脂肪,纤维,蛋
白质和水。微量 营养素是维生素与矿物质。 The
macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy,
which is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called ―
Calories‖ and written with a capital C to distinguish from
gram calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ (4
kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per
gram. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide
energy, but are necessary for other reasons.
大量营养素(不含纤维和水)提供能量,这是焦耳或热量
测量 (通常称为―卡路里‖和大写C区分克卡路里)。碳
水化合物和蛋白质为17 kJ(4大卡)的每克脂肪提供能量,
而37 kJ(9大卡)每克。维生素,矿物质,纤维,和水不
提供能量,但所需的其他原因。
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates may be simple
monomers (glucose, fructose, galactose), or large polymers
polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of various
fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol. Some fatty acids are
essential, but not all. Protein molecules contain nitrogen
atoms in addition to the elements of carbohydrates and fats.
The nitrogen-containing monomers of protein, called amino
acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and
when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a
burden on the kidneys. Similar to fatty acids, certain amino
acids are essential.
碳水化合物和脂 肪分子由碳,氢,氧的原子。碳水化合物
可以是简单的单体(葡萄糖,果糖,半乳糖),或大的高
分子多糖(淀粉)。脂肪甘油三酯,由各种脂肪酸甘油单
体的约束。一些脂肪酸是必不可少的,但并非 所有的。蛋
白质分子中含有除脂肪与碳水化合物的元素氮原子。含氮
单体蛋白,称为氨基酸,完 成其他比能量代谢的许多角色,
当它们被用作燃料,摆脱了氮的地方对肾脏的负担。类似
的脂肪 酸,某些氨基酸是必不可少的。
Other micronutrients not categorized above include
antioxidants and phytochemicals.
其他微量元素分以上不包括抗氧化剂和植物化学物质。
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes.
Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others
are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an
imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.
大多数食品中含有的一种混合的部分或全部的营养类。有
些营养在定 期的基础上,当别人需要较少。健康状况不佳
可能造成的不平衡的营养,无论过剩或不足。
Lesson 24 What Is Food Chemistry?
What is food chemistry? Food Science deals with the production,
processing, distribution, preparation, evaluation, and utilization of
food. Food chemists work with plants that have been harvested
for food, and animals that have been slaughtered for food. Food
chemists are concerned with how these food products are
processed, prepared, and distributed. For example, to address
consumer demands, some food chemists are involved with
finding fat and sugar substitutes that do not alter food taste
and texture.
食品化学是什么?食品科学与生产,加工,配送,制备,
评价,和利用的食物。食品化学家用已收获的植物性食物,
并已用于屠宰的动物。食品化学家关注的是如 何将这些食
品加工,制备,和分布。例如,解决消费者的要求,一些
食品化学家参与发现脂肪和 糖的替代品,不改变食物的味
道和质地。
Basic food chemistry deals with the three primary
components in food: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
基本食品化学与食品中的三个主要组成部分:碳水化合物,
脂类和蛋白质。
Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in
plant and animal cells. They have an empirical formula CnH2nOn
or (CH2O)n. Since this formula is essentially a combination of
carbon and water these materials are called ―hydrates of carbon
or carbohydrates‖. Carbohydrates are the primary product of
plant photosynthesis, and are consumed as fuel by plants and
animals. Food carbohydrates include the simple carbohydrates
(sugars) and complex carbohydrates (starches and fiber).
碳水化合物构成的一组化合物在植物和动物细胞中发现。
他们有一个 经验公式cnh2non或(CH2O),因为这个公式
基本上是一个组合的碳和水这些材料被称为―水 合物的
碳或碳水化合物‖。碳水化合物是植物光合作用的主要产
品,并消耗的植物和动物油。的 碳水化合物,包括简单的
碳水化合物(糖类)和碳水化合物(淀粉和纤维)。
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and cholesterol. In the body, fat
serves as a source of energy, a thermal insulator, and a cushion
around organs; and it is an important component of the cell.
Since fats have times the energy content of carbohydrates
and proteins, most people try to limit their intake of dietary fat
to avoid becoming overweight. In most instances, fats are
from animal products – meats, milk products, eggs, and
seafood and oils are from plants – nuts, olives, and seeds. We
use lipids for flavor, to cook foods, and to improve the texture
of foods.
脂类包括脂肪,油,蜡,和 胆固醇。在体内,脂肪作为能
量的来源,热绝缘体,和垫在器官周围;它是细胞的重要
组成部分 。由于脂肪有倍的碳水化合物和蛋白质的能量含
量,大多数人试图限制他们的饮食中脂肪的摄入量,以避
免超重。在大多数情况下,脂肪是从动物产品–肉类,奶
制品,鸡蛋,海鲜和油是从植物–橄榄 ,坚果,种子。我
们使用的油脂味,煮的食物,以提高食品的质地。
Proteins are important components of food. Every cell requires
protein for structure and function. Proteins are complex polymers
composed of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids found in the
body. Eight of these are essential for adults and children, and nine
are essential for infants. Essential means that we cannot
synthesize them in large enough quantities for growth and repair
of our bodies, and therefore, they must be included in our diet.
Proteins consist of long chains of 100-500 amino acids that form
into three-dimensional structures, their native state. When you
change the native state of the protein, you change the
three-dimensional structure, which is referred to as denaturation.
Factors that cause denaturation include heating, acid, beating and
freezing.
蛋白质的食物的重要成分。每一个细胞的结构和功能的蛋
白质的需要。蛋白质是由氨基酸复合聚合物。有20种氨
基酸在体内发现。八这些是必不可少的成人和 儿童,九是
必不可少的婴儿。我们不能合成足够大的数量给我们身体
的生长和修复,因此必要的 手段,他们必须被包含在我们
的饮食。蛋白质组成的长链,100-500氨基酸形成的三维
结 构,其原生状态。当你改变蛋白质的天然状态,改变你
的三维结构,这是被称为变性。引起变性的因素包 括加热,
酸,殴打和冻结。
Lesson 25 How Do Food Additives Affect Your Health?
The possibility of harmful or toxic substances becoming part of
the food supply concerns the public, the food industry, and
regulatory agencies. Toxic chemicals may be introduced into
foods unintentionally through direct contamination, through
environmental pollution, and as a result of processing. Many
naturally occurring food compounds may be toxic. A summary
of the various toxic chemicals in foods was presented in a
scientific status summary of the Institute of Food Technologists
(1975). Many toxic substances present below certain levels
pose no hazard to health. Some substances are toxic and at
the same time essential for good health (such as vitamin A and
selenium). An understanding of the properties of additives and
contaminants and how these materials are regulated by
governmental agencies is important to the food scientist.
有害或有毒物质成为食品供应 部分上市的可能性,食品工
业,以及监管机构。有毒的化学物质可以被引入到食品无
意通过直接 污染,环境污染,作为一个结果,处理。许多
自然产生的化合物可能是有毒的食物。食品中的各种有毒< br>化学物质的总结是一个科学的食品技术学院的现状的总
结(1975)。目前许多低于一定水平的 健康没有危害的有
毒物质。有些物质是有毒的,同时保持身体健康(如维生
素、硒)。的添加剂 和污染物的性质的理解,这些材料是
由政府机构的监管是重要的食品科学家。
Food additives can be divided into two major groups, intentional
additives and incidental additives. Intentional additives are
chemical substances that are added to food for specific purposes.
Although we have little control over unintentional or incidental
additives, intentional additives are regulated by strict
governmental controls. The . law governing additives in foods is
the Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act of 1958. According to this act, a food additive is
defined as follows:
食品添加剂 可分为两大类,故意的添加剂和杂费添加剂。
故意的添加剂的化学物质,添加到食品中有特定用途的。< br>虽然我们有意外或偶然添加剂点控制,故意的添加剂有严
格的政府管制的规定。美国法在食品添加 剂是食品添加剂
修正执政的联邦食品,药品和化妆品法案1958。根据这一
法案,食品添加剂 的定义如下:
The term food additive means any substance the intended use of
which results, or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or
indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the
characteristics of any food (including any substance intended for
use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing,
treating, packaging, transporting, or holding food; and including
any source of radiation intended for any such use), if such a
substance is not generally recognized, among experts qualified by
scientific training and experience to evaluate its safety, as having
been adequately shown through scientific procedures (or, in the
case of a substance used in food prior to January 1,1958, through
either scientific procedures or experience based on common use
in food) to be safe under the condition of its intended use; except
that such a term does not include pesticides, color additives and
substances for which prior sanction or approval was granted.
长期的食品添加剂是指任何 物质的使用目的,结果,或可
合理预期的结果,直接或间接地在其成为一个组件或影响
任何食物 的特性(包括任何物质用于生产,制造,包装,
加工,生产,包装,运输,处理,或持有食品;和包括任
何的辐射源,用于任何用途),如果这样的物质不是公认
的专家,在合格的科学训练和经验来评 估其安全性,已通
过科学的程序,充分显示出(或者,在一个在食品中的应
用到一月11958 ,现有的物质情况下通过科学的程序或基
于在食物中使用的共同经验)对其使用条件下是安全的;
但这一期限不包括农药,而之前的制裁或批准的颜色添加
剂和物质。
Lesson 26 Food Safety
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling,
preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne
illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed
to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit
disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth
medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Debates on
genetic food safety include such issues as impact of genetically
modified food on health of further generations and genetic
pollution of environment, which can destroy natural biological
diversity. In developed countries there are intricate standards for
food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main
issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is
usually a critical item. 食品安全是一个科学的描述处理,制备,
和的方式,防止食源性疾病的存储。这包括一些例程,应
遵循以避免潜在的严重危害健康的危险。食物 传播疾病的
人以及作为生长培养基中的细菌,可引起食物中毒。基因
食品安全辩论包括转基因食 品对进一步代和环境生物污
染的健康影响等问题,从而破坏天然的生物多样性。在发
达国家,有 食品制备复杂的标准,而在不发达的主要问题
是足够的安全用水供应的国家,这通常是一个关键项目。
Foodborne illness, commonly called ―food poisoning,‖ is
caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly
7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10
times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most
common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are
cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked
foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute
adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of
food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of
non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be
adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign
bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging,
distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their
droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of
other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to
become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe
container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
食源性疾病,通常被称为―食物中毒,是由细菌,病 毒,
毒素,寄生虫引起的,和朊病毒。大约有7000000人死于
食物中毒,每年,约10倍 的患非致命的版本。最常见的
两种因素导致的细菌性食源性疾病案例都准备吃其它未
煮过的食物 和温度控制不当的食物交叉污染。不常见的,
急性不良反应也可以如果食品化学污染的发生的发生,例< br>如从储存不当,或使用非食品级的肥皂和消毒剂。食物也
可以掺杂得到了非常广泛的文章(称为― 异物‖)在农业,
制造,烹饪,包装,分销或销售。这些外国机构可以包括
害虫或它们的粪便, 毛,烟头,木屑,和各种各样的其他
污染物。对于某些类型的食物被污染,如果储存或在一个
不 安全的容器,它是可能的,如铅釉陶瓷锅。
Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since
as early as Hippocrates. The sale of rancid, contaminated or
adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of
hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century.
Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and
other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis
Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that
are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further
underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the
development of modern food storage and food preservation
methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the
causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of
more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and
eliminate many risks.
食物中毒已被公认为人类的疾病早希波克拉底 。腐臭的销
售被污染或掺假食品是司空见惯的,直到引进卫生,制冷,
并在第十九世纪的害虫控 制。杀死细菌和其他微生物的研
究,利用热今天的科学家如路易斯巴斯德促成了现代卫生
标准, 在发达国家普遍存在的技术发现。这是进一步支持
的李比希的工作,其中LED的现代食品贮存保鲜方法 的发
展。最近几年,一个更深入的了解,对食源性疾病的原因
有LED的发展更系统的方法,如 危害分析与关键控制点
(HACCP),它可以识别和消除各种风险。
The State Food and Drug Administration of China (SFDA) was
founded in 2003 as part of China's efforts to improve food safety.
The SFDA is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the other
health, food, and drug agencies. It is ―directly under the State
Council, which is in charge of comprehensive supervision on the
safety management of food, health food and cosmetics and is the
competent authority of drug regulation.‖ The SFDA
encompasses ten departments that regulate and oversee
different aspects of food and drug law. These include the General
Office Department of Planning and Finance, the Department of
Policy and Regulations, the Department of Food Safety
Coordination, the Department of Food Safety Supervision, the
Department of Drug Registration, the Department of Medical
Devices, the Department of Drug Safety and Inspection, the
Department of Drug Market Compliance, the Department of
Personnel and Education, and the Department of International
Cooperation.
中国国家食品药品监督管理局(SFDA)成立于2003,是< br>中国努力改善食品安全部。国家食品药品监督管理局负责
监督和协调其他健康,食物,药品机构。 它是―国务院直
属的,这是对食品安全管理的综合监管,保健食品、化妆
品和药品监管当局。‖ 国家食品药品监督管理局包括十个
部门,规范和监督食品和药品法的不同方面。这些措施包
括计 划和财政部的办公室,政策法规司,其食品安全协调
部,对食品安全监管部门,该药品注册部,该部的医 疗设
备,药品安全检查部门,对药品市场的合规部门,人事教
育部门,与国际合作部。
Lesson 27 Spectroscopy光谱
Introduction to Spectroscopy光谱学导论
(1) What Is Spectroscopy? (1)光谱技术是什么?
Spectroscopy is a technique that uses the interaction of energy
with a sample to perform an analysis. 光谱是一种技术,使用
能量的互动与样品进行分析。
(2) What Is a Spectrum? (2)的频谱是什么?
The data that is obtained from spectroscopy is called a
spectrum. A spectrum is a plot of the intensity of energy
detected versus the wavelength (or mass or momentum or
frequency, etc.) of the energy. 从光 谱数据,称为谱。光谱是
一个阴谋的检测与波长的能量密度(或质量、动量和能量
的频率,等) 。
(3) What Information Is Obtained?获得什么信息?
A spectrum can be used to obtain information about atomic
and molecular energy levels, molecular geometries, chemical
bonds, interactions of molecules, and related processes. Often,
spectra are used to identify the components of a sample
(qualitative analysis). Spectra may also be used to measure the
amount of material in a sample (quantitative analysis). < br>一种光谱可以用来获得关于原子和分子的能量水平,信息
的分子结构,化学键,分子的相互作用, 以及相关的过程。
通常,光谱是用来确定样品的成分(定性分析)。光谱也
可用于测量样品中的 物质的量(定量分析)。
(4) What Instruments Are Needed? (4)需要什么工具?
There are several instruments that are used to perform a
spectroscopic analysis. In simplest terms, spectroscopy
requires an energy source (commonly a laser, but this could be
an ion source or radiation source) and a device for measuring
the change in the energy source after it has interacted with
the sample (often a spectrophotometer or interferometer).
有几个工具,用于执行光谱分析。在最简单的术语,光谱
需要一个能量源(通常是激光,但这可能是一 种离子源或
辐射源)和一个在它与样品相互作用的测量在能源转换装
置(通常是一个分光光度计 或干涉仪)。
(5) What Are Some Types of Spectroscopy?的光谱中的一些
类型是什么?
There are as many different types of spectroscopy as there are
energy sources! Here are some examples:
有许多不同类型的光谱有能源!这里是一些例子:
Lesson 28 Chromatography色谱
Chromatography is a family of analytical chemistry techniques
for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing the sample,
a mixture which contains the analyte, in the ―mobile
phase‖, often in a stream of solvent, through the ―
stationary phase.‖ The stationary phase retards the passage
of the components of the sample. When components pass
through the system at different rates they become separated
in time, like runners in a marathon. Ideally, each component
has a characteristic time of passage through the system. This is
called it's ―retention time.‖
色谱法是 分析化学混合物的分离技术的一个家庭。它包括
通过样本,其中包含的分析物的混合物,在―移动相‖,
往往在一个流的溶剂,通过―固定相。―固定相阻碍样品
的成分的通道。当组件通过以不同的速 率就在时间上分离
的系统,像一个马拉松运动员。理想情况下,每个组件都
有通道的特征时间通 过系统。这被称为是―停留时间‖。
A chromatograph takes a chemical mixture carried by liquid or
gas and separates it into its component parts as a result of
differential distributions of the solutes as they flow around or
over a stationary liquid or solid phase. Various techniques for
the separation of complex mixtures rely on the differential
affinities of substances for a gas or liquid mobile medium and
for a stationary adsorbing medium through which they pass;
such as paper, gelatin, or magnesium silicate gel.
气相色谱仪需要的化学混合物的液体或气体,分离出它的
组成 部分,由于溶质的微分分布作为他们绕流或在一个静
止的液体或固体。对复杂的混合物分离的各种技术依 靠气
体或液体的移动介质和物质的不同亲和力固定吸附介质,
通过它们传递的;如纸,明胶,或 硅酸镁凝胶。 Analytical
chromatography is used to determine the identity and
concentration of molecules in a mixture. Preparative
chromatography is used to purify larger quantities of a
molecular species. 解析法是用来确定在一个混合的身份和
浓度的分子。制备色谱纯化用大量的分子种类。

试管几天测出来着床-试管取出的精子如何选


试管婴儿期间能吃定坤丹吗-卵巢坏死可以试管吗


上海第一妇婴保健院试管婴儿-安徽省立医院试管打促排期间


试管婴儿多少天可见卵黄囊-试管囊胚移植后3天肚脐刺痛


衡阳附一做试管好吗-正常精子3个可以做试管么


试管二代胎心胎芽-泰国试管医院排名来泰东方出众


哪个医院做试管婴儿不用排队-郭敏试管成功


试管移植从第8天起一直流血-试管移植完十六天使劲起床了



本文更新与2021-01-15 13:31,由作者提供,不代表本网站立场,转载请注明出处:http://www.xapfxb.com/yuer/411182.html

专业英语课文翻译的相关文章